The economy of the Indus Valley Civilization was based on animal husbandry, especially Jebu cattle, and cultivable agriculture, growing grains, pulses and other plants. These were complemented by the exploitation of wild resources such as fish. Priesthood and agriculture, each differing in their relative importance in the vast environment of the Indus region.
Mixed farming in the valleys and plains of the Indus and Saraswati rivers, their tributaries and other small rivers was highly profitable; Rainfall and other local water resources also supported agriculture, sometimes with the help of irrigation, in other regions, such as Balochistan.
In the highlands of Gujarat and Punjab and Balochistan, animals were taken for grazing at certain times of the year for the expansion of seasonal pastures. Coastal settlements took advantage of marine resources such as shellfish, which provided not only food but also shells, an important resource for jewelry making.
Archaeological evidence for Indus agriculture is extremely bitter. Plant conservation is often weak depending on local conditions, plant types and coincidences. Although there is evidence that starch and grain imprints and stalks are well preserved in carbonated grains and pottery and bricks in grain cultivation, roots and tubers and many fruits and vegetables have very little or no hard part. Surviving as archeological specimens, evidence of their cultivation is scarce. This problem is complicated by the difference between the quality of the recovery and the problems of identification in the case of archaeological excavations.
Agricultural Economics:
Agriculture in the mature Harappan era, such as in the ancient culture of the Indo-Iranian border region, was based on wheat, barley, pulses, sheep, goats, and cattle, a similar combination of crops and animals as Western culture. The Iranian plateau, South Central Asia and West Asia, most of which were mainly domesticated in West Asia.
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There were other native plants and animals in every region of Asia, especially the Jebu cattle of South Asia. In South Asia, with a few exceptions like sesame and cotton, crops sown in autumn and spring ruled the whole region from Anatolia to Central India.
This is known as rabi cultivation in South Asia. However, early in the second millennium, major new crops were added, which required spring or summer sowing and autumn harvesting - kharif cultivation. These crops will subsequently establish a pattern for agriculture in the subcontinent; However, in the north-west, rabi crops continue to dominate and in many areas both rabi and kharif crops are grown.
ami rabi grains:
Wheat and barley were the main food grains of Rabi cultivation. The people of Harappa cultivated different types of wheat - a little Eminar and Eincorn, of which there were three varieties of bread wheat, of which shot wheat (Triticum aestivum sphaerococum) was the most common in the mature Harappan era. Barley was more important than wheat in some places, including the Indus outpost at Laghugui on the Amu Darya and the Baluchi site at Mirai Kalat. Harappa was born barley, both naked and naked.
This range of crop varieties allows them to utilize the different qualities of different types of land suitable for cultivation. In the capital of Gujarat, barley was poorly represented in the extensive collection of barley and was not cultivated after period A (2500-2200 BC) and wheat of ordinary bread in Kachi was more than barley.
Oats (Avena sp.) Were present at Mehrgarh in the 4th millennium and were also recovered from Pirak and the late Harappan hula. Oats usually existed in the early archaeological context as a cultivated weed that attacked wheat and barley stands without deliberately cultivating them. This is consistent with their scattered presence in South Asian botanical specimens.
Buckwheat:
During the third millennium, many indigenous food grains were brought under cultivation by the Indus Valley Civilization or contemporary South Asian culture. Small buckwheat (Panicum sumatrain) was common in Harappa Rosadi, Orio Timbo and Babu Kot in Gujarat and present day Harappa in 3000 BC, and browntop buckwheat (Brikaria ramosa) was also grown in Rosadi. A small amount of Setaria SP. It is cultivated in Surkotada and Rojdi. The verticalta may be the bright foxtail buckwheat, which was found in southern India in the third millennium or s. Pumila, yellow foxtail buckwheat, is found in both native species.
Foxtail buckwheat (Cetaria italica), known as the late Harappan era, is thought to have been a native pet, but it was probably introduced. It was a major crop of China, brought under cultivation in the 7th millennium BC, and in the 6th millennium, it was being cultivated in the west up to Tape Gaz Tabila in southeastern Iran. Another indigenous market seed, Jabir Ashru (Quix lacrima-Jabi), has been found in the contemporary Ahr-Banas settlements of Harappa and Balathal, both as beads, a common use of these seeds.
Broomcorn (or common) buckwheat (Panicum miliaceum) was probably cultivated in South Central Asia (as well as China) and probably reached the Indus Valley Civilization through its trading outpost, Shortugai, located in the adjoining area to the south. Turkmenistan , Where broomcorn buckwheat was an important crop. A wild ancestor of the broomcorn market exists in South Asia, so it may alternatively be a native pet. Several species of Pangea were present in the genus and it is possible that broom buckwheat was among them. The first specific event of this buckwheat in South Asia took place in Pira in the early part of the second millennium.
By the beginning of the second millennium, many plants of African descent had appeared in Gujarat and were included in the range of crops produced by the local Harappans. These included three types of buckwheat — jar (jowar or guinea corn or sorghum bicolor), buckwheat (pearl buckwheat, Panicetum typhoidus), and ragi (finger buckwheat, Eliusin coriana). In the first part of the mature Harappan period from about 2500 BC, there were reports of a lot of rage in Ruzdi, Harappa has potential rage phytoliths in bricks and bridges, but its presence is unlikely.
Dorian Fuller (2001, personal contact), an archaeologist with extensive knowledge of South Asian flora, warns that some of the most sought-after phenomena of rage may be Cetaria spp., Ecocheloa colona (Sava Millet), or Brachiaria. Based on misidentification. Ramosa (Browntop buckwheat), all native South Asian buckwheat; The native grass (Eleucine indica) is also found in large quantities in roses. Harappa and later Harappan Hulas cemeteries later had H-level ragi, and Fuller himself identified a grain of ragi in Halure, southern India, dating to 1800 BC.
Rice:
Rice tribes in parts of South and East Asia, including the Indus region and the Ganges valley. The history of its cultivation is complex and probably includes various centers of livestock. Genetic evidence has recently been established that rice cultivation was introduced in at least two different regions.
In East Asia, perennial wild rice domestication produces the low-grained Japonica variety, when domesticated, probably in many parts of South Asia, an annual wild rice gives birth to the long-grained Indica variety, native to Southeast Asia. Originating through Asia and China. , Rice cultivation began in the Ganges region of eastern India in the third millennium and sometime later.
The rice-producing culture of Southeast Asia had close cultural ties with the inhabitants of East India, Bangladesh and was divided between them by regions such as cord-marked pottery and distinct shoulder axes.
Paddy is wasted in Gujarat. Impressions of rice husk and leaves have been found in Harappan pottery and Harappan pottery. These have been studied by Naomi Miller, who has established that they are less likely to reflect rice cultivation. Instead it was probably rice among the wild plants grazed by cattle, which resulted in the presence of rice husk in their dung, which was used for fuel and pottery tampering.
Rice husk and phytolith have also been found in pottery and bricks in Harappa. Paddy, probably in the wild, is known from the original Harappan sand and Kunal of Haryana. Before 2000 BC, Swat rice appeared as a grain imprint in the late Cote DG pottery of Galligan. These can be from native or wild rice. However, in the early part of the second millennium, rice must have been cultivated in the eastern Indus region. It was among the trees cultivated at the last Harappan site in Hulas, where both wild and cultivated Indica rice were identified.
Other edible plants:
There were many local pulses in South Asia that were locally domesticated. These include green gram (Vigna radiata) and black gram (Vigna mungo), which are grown in several mature Harappan sites and contemporary Balathal in Rajasthan. Horseshoe (macroloma uniformlorum) was domesticated in South India at the same time and is known from the late Harappan Hulas.
At the beginning of the second millennium, two more pulses of African descent were added - Hyacinth bean (Lablab purpurius) and Kaupia (Vigna anguiculata), which later grew into the Hulas and both appeared in southern India after 1800 BC. Pulses of all varieties were more important in the peripheral region like Gujarat than in the center of the Indus Valley.
Very few Harappan cultivated plants have been recovered. However, there is evidence of extensive cultivation of a species of Ivy Guard during the Brassica, brown mustard (Indian rape) and mature Harappan eras, and later during the growth of the surrounding ahar-bonas balathale. Area. Jujube (plum, Gizifus jujuba), an edible red berry, has been known in Mehergarh since ancient times, although it was probably collected instead of cultivated; This may also be true for later use.
The fair was cultivated in Sistan adjoining Shahr-i Sokhta and probably by the Harappans. Other locally grown or collected fruits include caper, mango, and sugarcane, and the surrounding areas may also supply fruits, vegetables, and nuts, such as cucumbers, pesto, almonds, and walnuts, all of which are known from the west. Ficus religiosa has also been recovered from Hulus along with the fruit of the poplar tree.
Fiber:
Oil is also available from linseed (Linum eucitatisimam), which is available at several Harappan sites, including Miri Kalat and Nowshera and Rojdi. Alternatively it may be grown for its fiber, flax. The latter was used to make linen cloth in the Iranian plateau during this period; However, no linen was detected at the Harappa site. Evidence of cotton balls is found in Mohenjodaro and possibly Harappa.
The production of cotton textiles may have meant that linen was of no interest to the Harappans. Cotton can be grown in Mehergarh before the 5th millennium, although like Linam, it may have grown for oil-rich seeds. In the mature Harappan era, it grows in both the Indus Valley and Baluchistan. Locally available plants such as blue and yellow were probably used as colors; Among the trees recovered from Rosadi is the blue hall, and the root of the murder is used based on the presence of Madar with red cloth in Mohenjo-daro.
Water and irrigation:
Irrigation work:
The sparse winter rainfall in Balochistan, though significant, cannot be relied upon to irrigate permanent crops in generally limited areas of suitable soil. In some cases water was available from wells and springs, but in the early third millennium, if not earlier, the inhabitants of the area built small dams (dams and gaberbands) to keep some water flowing in the seasonal streams. And the small river (Nice) after the rain.
In some cases, for example, in the Indus Diwana, early in the Upper Hub River, a dam was built to hold water, which could be released or propagated in the fields as needed. In other cases, dams and channels carried floodwaters to the dam fields, where they accumulated silt and provided sufficient soil moisture to grow crops.
A type of dam has small walls that accumulate at the bottom of a creek or river so that some of its water spreads to the ground behind the walls, creating a small farm. Settlements in the Coolie region (southern Balochistan) appear to be connected by dams; There has also been some incredible summer rainfall in the region.
The canal is irrigated at Shortugai, an outpost on the Indus River in northern Afghanistan, at the confluence of the Amu Darya and Kocha rivers. A canal has been found, which brings water from Kocha. This may mean that the people of the Indus community came up with canal irrigation techniques when they settled here; However, the Namje culture in adjacent southern Turkmenistan, from which the inhabitants of Shortugai probably acquired bromcorn buckwheat, had a long experience of canal irrigation which inspired the inhabitants of Shortugai.
Water supply:
In contrast to the situation on the hills and foothills of the Indo-Iranian border, there is little evidence that large-scale irrigation works were used or needed in most or all of the Indus region. Because groundwater, rivers, lakes, streams and especially flood water. The Indus floods were widespread in the Indus and occurred in July and August, providing summer water for kharif crops, while winter crops are fed from water retained in rivers, streams, lakes and dhanda (seasonal lakes), which are brought down. Water flows through the mountains of Balochistan from Nice in January or February.
There were different areas for agriculture in the plains of the river Indus. Subsequent dams formed by the abandoned reservoirs of the Indus River and the marginal portions of the bull ponds allow year-round cultivation. The active floodplain of the river has provided excellent arable land, the silt accumulated by the flood waters, its fertility is renewed every year by the rich silt near the river.
Deep silt patches reflect the unexpected distribution of channels cut by river aquifers. These had to be discovered, but they provided the best arable land without cultivation. In the western Indus, Manchar Lake flooded a large area during the floods and the retreating floodplains left fertile land suitable for agriculture.
Today it covers an area of about 8,000 hectares. Although the productivity of the Indus is very high, it is not reliable. In four years one brings an unusually high or low amount of water; The river floods unevenly depending on where its banks break; And it often changes its course. This combination of high but unexpected productivity has facilitated the development of storage systems and facility wells that utilize the high water table of the river basin and some summer and winter rainfall.
Most of the Harappan settlements in Gujarat were located in Saurashtra. In the mature Harappan era, these were confined to the banks of rivers and streams, and especially along canal lows, which retain floodwaters during the winter months. Towards the end of the Harappan period, agricultural settlements spread to other parts of Saurashtra on moist, black cotton soils where the kharif crop could be harvested after being flooded by the summer monsoon rains.
The number of settlements in the region has increased at least four times during this period. Kachchh, north of Saurashtra, was an island in the Indus Valley. Today brackish water and poor rainfall provide little support for arable agriculture, but in the Indus era, when a significant flow of river water entered the desert, groundwater was probably freshwater and was used for irrigation by digging wells.
The wells and reservoirs also supported the inhabitants of Dholavira on the Khadir Island of the Great Run. Wells here and in other areas can provide enough water to grow crops. Extracting water from them would have been a labor-intensive activity, requiring sufficient animal power, although only shallow wells were needed to reach the high water table in flooded areas in the summer. The mason can be used for irrigation in Allahdino. It was located on high ground, from where water could flow into the fields.
Excellent examples of wells from the city of Indus indicate a high level of Harappan potential in their construction. In the central region, the Indus, the Indus-Gangetic Doab, and possibly the western Saraswati, the flood filled many lakes, which for some months acted as reservoirs from which water was drawn for burning crops; Many keep water until December and some until the end of February.
The people of the Indus community probably used gear-like gears to draw irrigation water from these and other rivers. One end of the Indus pottery from Mohenjodaro is a scratched photograph of an instrument, arranged in a simple shape like a straight and horizontal pole with a bucket on one side and a counterweight on the other.
Hunting and forest resource collection:
Partisan communities in the Indus and neighboring regions have always continued to exploit some wild resources, as well as resources derived from agriculture and priesthood, and this practice seems to have increased and become widespread in the Harappan era.
Animals:
To some extent, hunting was a by-product of agriculture, killing birds and livestock hunters to protect crops and livestock, but game could also be a valuable commodity for food. A variety of game animals such as chinkara and other gazelles, onagars, wild sheep (ureal), wild goats (Persian wild goats, markhors and ibex), black deer and other deer lived in the mountains and grazed in chandeliers and grasslands. The plains were home to nilgai, wild boar, buffalo, wild cattle, elephants, chital, barasingh and other deer, where rivers and lakes were well watered.
Turtles, crocodiles and dolphins, as well as mollusks and many species of fish can be taken from rivers and lakes. Wildflowers were also found around the water and especially in Lake Manchar and in Gujarat. There were also other birds that made good food, such as the franklin, partridge, partridge, jungle bird, grasshopper and peacock. Even lizards are caught and eaten.
Edible plants:
Wild plants were also important as well as providing fodder for domestic animals, some of which, such as Chenopodium, were undoubtedly exploited as human food. Perhaps after getting acquainted with the range of native plants, some summer growing plants were brought under cultivation, which initiated the invention of kharif agriculture. Thus rice, some buckwheat and pulses and many vegetables are first included in the food list and then added to the crop range.
Fruits like plums, nuts and pasta were collected. It has been suggested that wild plants were collected exclusively when cultivated crops were unable to meet the full needs of the community, either because of poor harvests or because of the growing population in the area. On a daily basis, about a quarter of plant food comes from wild sources; More than a dozen species of wild plants were used in Harappa; And the balance between wild and domestic plant diets can be regional and locally variable.
Wood:
The forests of the Himalayas, Balochistan and the Gujarati hills, as well as the well-watered underground forests in the Indus Basin, were a source of wood, as a building material, for fuel, for many household purposes. Useful species include lead, acacia and tamarind, which were widely available. Siso was used for ceiling beams in Mohenjo-daro, while acacia was found in Lothal and Rangpur, which were used to make tools and furniture.
The main use of tamarind was for fuel, although it can be used to make many materials and structural elements; It is located in Rangpur. Rosewood was found in the plains, as well as in peninsular India এটি it was used to make one of the wooden coffins found in Harappa, and was also used to make furniture, tools, and cars. There were salt trees in the forest before.
Among the trees at high altitudes are cedar and cedar, known from Harappa and Mohenjodaro, and used for building and other purposes; Both are fragrant wood, such as lead. Elms, growing at high altitudes, were used for construction in Harappa. Another mountain species, birch, is not known to have been involved, but later it was used for fuel and its bark was an important writing material.
Teak is generally useful and especially suitable for shipbuilding because it is water-resistant, grows in the highlands of Gujarat and grows up to 5 to 5 feet tall, including sorghum hepalensis in the lower part of the region. The tubular stem comes out. Was suitable for making small boats. Ebony was found in the forests of the Western Ghats, but not in the Harappa region, although in Mesopotamian texts it may be referred to as imported from the Indus (Sallum Meluhi, "Meluhar's black wood, alternatively called rosewood". Mangroves, probably similarly). Mentioned (Kusabuku Meluhi, "Meluhan Ciud," alternatively identified as teak), was found on the west coast and could be used for boat building and fueling.
Indigenous fruit trees include plum, almond and pesto; A wooden mortar placed on a grinding platform in Harappa was made of jujube wood. Bamboo was found in Makran and its wood was found in Harappa. The date palms grow in Makran and Indus - as well as their fruit, they make wood, leaf baskets, mats and roofs and fibers for ropes and ropes.
Business Economy:
One of the characteristics of the Indus Civilization that most early researchers observed was its apparent uniformity the elements found on sites throughout the Indus region were completely identical, with no regional or chronological differences. The proximity of the Indus material and the establishment of a sequence of developments in some places like Harappa have blown away this notion of complete immutability — some changes have been established over time and some regional variations have been defined.
Nevertheless, there is considerable uniformity in the ingredients found in the Indus region, which reflects a culturally integrated flavor with a fully developed internal distribution network. For the most part, the people of the Indus region were self-sufficient in food (although large cities and towns needed to pull food from the highlands to support their huge populations, which included a large number of non-agricultural citizens).
Yet food items were moved to different parts of the Indus region - no trace of the vast majority remains, but the palm fronds of Mohenjo-daro and the dried marine fish bones in Harappa provide real evidence that this has happened.
Raw materials from different regions were also transported to other parts of the Indus State. Whereas in earlier times, local sources of glitter were exploited by the inhabitants of each region, very high quality brown glitter was extracted from the Rohri hills during the Harappan period and during each period of the Indus Dynasty. As a raw material or finished pattern-for example, most of the stone tools at Balakot were obtained in finished form.
Shells, especially used as the main ingredient for making bangles, were collected in large quantities on the coasts of Makran and Gujarat. Some were processed locally and distributed as either blank or finished products, others were kept in the main settlements where they were cleaned and worked.
Often individual workshops focus on creating a specific type of rock pattern or working on a specific type of rock. Similarly, there were lapidary workshops near the sources of agate, carnelian and other gems, in the main area, far away from these sources.
Weight and measurement:
A further insight into the organized nature of internal distribution networks is provided by the existence of a standard system of weights and measures, used throughout the Indus region, of weights, made of chert-like stones, usually sized. , However, the initial weight in the form of a fine jumper or cut sphere, as well as some perforated conical weights and nabi conical weights which are similar to the pieces of the chess set.
These were built in Harappa and Chanhudro. The smallest dense weights, ranging from the smallest unit of 0.871 g to one to twenty-four times, were present in settlements of all sizes, while major cities and towns weighed more, up to 10.865 kg (12,800 units).
It is quite possible that the Indus VAT, like Mesopotamia, was issued by the authorities to control the receipt and receipt of goods and to measure the amount of goods received through taxation or government payment. Kenoir (1998, 99) noted that weight groups were often found near the Indus city gates, suggesting that they were used by officials who controlled the flow of goods into the city and who paid arrears. Whatever their specific use, the existence of a system of standard weights through the Indus region implies official control and regulation of the movement of goods.
Seal:
One of the most distinctive features of the Indus settlements is the square seal. Usually made of statite (soapstone) and hardened by firing, each seal carries an inscription, usually small and a portrait, usually of a single animal, although there were scenes. The use of a pattern on the seal allowed their recognition by all concerned, such as carriers and warehouse workers, while the writing could only be understood by (probably a limited number of) educated people.
Behind the seals was a semicircular perforated boss, so that they could be carried on a cord or fastened with a belt or wrist strap. Seals can have many uses. They can be used in two ways in the context of trade and movement of goods. At first, they could only serve as a person's identity or certificate-setting token. In this context they may be issued as badges of authority to merchants and other persons going into official business who have to show their authority or prove their credentials.
Historically, official sealed tokens have been used as a pass in street traffic control systems. If the Indus region were not a UK, a series of petty statesmen, the seals could be used as individuals who were involved in business and wealth gathering. Individuals can also use personal seals in personal transactions to establish their identity.
Second, seals can be used to create impressions on soft media, such as clay or wax, attached to the product. Such seals may identify packaged goods as the property of the state or of a particular person or as obtained from a specific place. The presence of an exclusive clay seal can also serve as a guarantee that the sealed package is not opened or distorted before it reaches the intended recipient.
Doors, houses or storerooms can be sealed in the same way, a practice hell-of-Sokhar Shahr-e Sokhta and evidenced in literary sources from Mesopotamia, although no Harappan sites have been reported. In Mesopotamia, where documents were written on late tablets, various documents but seals were also used to identify the persons or officials involved, to act as witnesses, or to draw attention to the accuracy of the contract or transaction. If the comparative documents are made by the Harappans, they are made of weak material, of which no trace remains.
Delivery mechanism:
The closely integrated nature of the Indus region implies the existence of efficient communication networks, using inland routes along land and river banks and along the coast to the sea.
Land transport:
Local transport was on foot or in bullock carts. Terra-quota models give a clear picture of wooden vehicles with rigid wooden wheels that were widely used for short distance land transport. They are virtually identical to the modern peasants of the Indus region. Some have a hardwood platform above the axis, others have an open structure.
In some cases the platform may have permanent sidepieces, but many simply have holes where wooden bends can be placed to create the directions needed for loading. These carts were pulled by oxen or bullocks, including terracotta models. A different style of car, a smaller chassis, a roof and higher directions, was probably a vehicle where people traveled. A small platform in front of the cab provides a seat for the driver.
Long-distance land transport usually employs pack animals, although small valuables can be transported on foot. In modern South Asia, priests play an important role in providing connections between settled communities and in transporting goods from one place to another as they go through their seasons.
Seasonal movement in the Harappan era was an important part of the priestly economy, and it is very likely that people carried their animals in different parts of the Indus State, they acted as carriers, carrying goods from source to consumer. A complex network. The relationship between the priestly groups of different regions enables the transfer of goods from one region to another.
Although there were no pastoralists for camels and horses in the Indus era, cattle could carry heavy loads and even sheep could be used as pack animals. Although many goods were probably transferred in private transactions, the priests were entrusted with the task of carrying out official shipments of goods by representatives of the authorities.
Water transport:
Although land transport was important, especially in short distances and between lowlands and highlands, water transport along rivers and streams would be easier for long distance transportation, especially for heavy or bulky goods. Most major settlements were connected by a network of waterways that were navigable for at least part of the year.
Indus, from where it enters the Punjab plain south of the Salt Range. Coastal communication by sea will connect Gujarat and the Makran coastal communities of Gujarat. The development of waterways was driven by the demand of fishermen and the colonization of the islands of Gujarat and the areas where water transport was required on the shores of Manchar Lake.
In the rainy season, when a large area around Lake Manchar is flooded, modern inhabitants leave their homes on its shores and move to houseboats, or stay in houseboats all year round, a life that may exist. Indus time. Modern communities also live in houseboats on the banks of the river Indus.
Such boats with shallow drafts can be used in the Indus except during the most turbulent times of summer floods; Other branches of the modern Indus, such as the Western Nara, are navigable for most of the year. Although the Indus and its tributaries and tributaries have changed since the Harappan period, there is no reason to believe that it was less than it was then. The Saraswati system also offered water transportation.
A clay model from Lothal represents a boat with a mast, an attachment for a sail, and a steering wheel. It seems to have had a kill with a lower stem, a flat bottom, and a higher bow. Such a ship could be used for coastal cruises and sea voyages, where its shallow draft would have been convenient.
Although the model gives no indication of the material from which such ships would be built, teak, a preferred wood for shipbuilding, originated in Gujarat, where the Hasappan ocean-going ship may be built, such as thessia populnia (country) teak), wood special Used to kill ships. Perhaps the Harappan ships were made from these timbers, which were exported from Harappan to Mesopotamia, where they were also used for shipbuilding.
The lifespan of a teak pot was several decades, perhaps eighty years. Although there is no evidence of a construction method, it is possible that they were made of planks sewn together, like many modern Asian boats. Ships built in this way are very flexible. Crafts from other countries include boats made of hollow logs, and such ships were also used by the Harappans for coastal or river travel and fishing, albeit only to carry any amount of board-made goods. The ships would fit.
South Asian trade and exchange:
Although the resources of the greater Indus region were rich and varied, it lacked many important raw materials, especially copper. Metal tools played an important role in the Harappan industry, such as stone carving and carpentry, and were also used as traditional stone tools for some purposes. Some of the raw materials required by the people of Harappa could be obtained from the surrounding area. The scope of their trade relations is marked by the culture of settlement, fishing or farming in the vicinity of Harappan material.
Hunter:
In settlements such as Bagore in Rajasthan and Loteshwar in Gujarat, hunter-gatherers acquired domesticated sheep through trade or expedition, probably in the sixth millennium BC. At first and later the spread of the peasants in the Indus plain and beyond Gujarat and the Indo-Gangetic division brought them into close contact with banners and hunter-gatherers and in many cases humiliated it.
For example, the hunter-gatherer communities of Saurashtra started making pottery in the late 4th century, different from the contemporary inhabitants of Balochistan by the Kechi Begars, adopting the technique but inventing their own style; This phenomenon is similar in other parts of the world, for example, in Europe, when hunters and farmers came into close contact.
The region later had different styles of Harappan pottery (Sindhi and Sorath), but its inhabitants no longer followed the hunter-gatherer lifestyle. However, in some other regions, such as the surrounding North Gujarat plains, agricultural settlements were not established and hunter-gatherers continued their established way of life, often to exploit the resources of different economies.
In most parts of the world, the development of agriculture eventually eliminated hunting and gathering as a means of livelihood due to the competition for land and the destruction of parts of the environment in which predators gathered. This was not the case in the Indian subcontinent, where there are still hunter-gatherers. Instead of being immersed, they adopt their own way of life, gradually moving towards mutually beneficial interdependence with the settled community.
Since hunter-gatherers had a nomadic lifestyle, exploiting areas that could not support agriculture, they could supply forest and desert products that were otherwise difficult, such as honey or wax, ivory, resin. Or impossible. , Make wild silk, and plant fibers. Agate and other gems can also be found by hounds to make pearls.
They can also act as carriers, transporting goods from one residential area to another; In return they could get both food, such as grains and products whose production was beyond their technical capabilities, such as copper knives. During the Indus Civilization, this relationship was in its infancy, but was still becoming an established pattern.
The number of hunter-gatherers gathered in the Harappan society was probably regionally different. In some regions, such as Saurashtra, hunter-gatherers may have been pastoralists or people who came together to form marine shells rather than trade experts, and were probably considered members of the Harappan community. Archaeologically such villagers are difficult to identify or distinguish from other Harappans. In contrast, in other regions, such as the North Gujarat plain, hunter-gatherers were culturally distinct and were among the many groups that traded Harappan.
Southern Neighbor:
Rajasthan and Deccan:
The Harappans enjoyed good trade relations with many other cultures on their borders. Of particular importance was their trade with the Arabs, the people of the Johadpura-Ganesha culture, who made their living from fishing, hunting and gathering. The Khetri region of the Aravalli Hills is one of the richest sources of copper in the subcontinent.
Copper ore is often combined with arsenic - when molten, arsenic copper ore forms a useful natural alloy that is difficult to make pure copper. These hills also produced statites, which were used in much of the Indus River. Other minerals found there include turquoise, sodalite (a mineral like lapis lazuli), zinc, gold, silver and lead, although there is no evidence that these were mined there during the Indus era.
Tin deposits are known in the Khetri Belt, especially in the Tusham Hills of Haryana, on the north-eastern edge of the Khetri Belt, not south of the eastern part of the Harappan Civilization. Although many Harappan metallic patterns are made of bronze (tin-copper alloy), most are copper or copper-arsenic alloys. Tin was not used in the post-Harappan period when this eastern region was the center of settlement, and tin was imported in the first millennium BC. All this information suggests that this local source of tin was not known in ancient times.
Early in the Indus era, a business relationship developed between the Indus peasants and the Araballi people, who had been exploiting the region's copper since the end of the fourth millennium. The people of Jodhpura-Ganeshwar themselves seem to have mined copper ore and Harappa exchanged metals for copper.
In return, the Arabs received manufactured goods and other Indus products, probably including copperware, which they had previously supplied, as the Kheta found the head of the Harappa arrow at Kulhadeka-Johade near Ganesha in the mining area and at Jodhpura.
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